Attributes, Outcomes, and Considerations of Effective Administrator Coaching/Mentoring Programs
by
Danny Gentry
Abstract
The importance of school administrators in the operation of the school and on student achievement is evident in the literature. Given the importance, changing nature, and increasing complexity of the job of school administrators, the current research supports contemporary forms of professional development to meet those demands. Coaching and mentoring are professional development strategies that are now used in the field of education. While the available research on the topic of administrator Coaching/Mentoring is small, a review of the available literature revealed several attributes of successful Coaching/Mentoring programs: The need for a personalized approach, the importance of development of specific goals and timelines, the need for trained coaches, and the provision of relevant feedback. Several potential impacts of successful Coaching/Mentoring programs were also highlighted in the research. Among those common themes were: Increased levels of confidence as an instructional leader, increased communication, and increased professional efficacy. The review of the literature revealed several factors that should be considered when designing and implementing an administrator Coaching/Mentoring program. These considerations include: The cost of the program, whether the program was job-embedded professional development or informal and independent, the level of support given to the program, and the use of partnership principals for coaching.
Keywords: coaching, mentoring, coaching program, mentoring program, executive coaching, leadership coaching, professional development
Attributes, Outcomes, and Considerations of Effective Administrator Coaching/Mentoring Programs
Leadership coaching and mentoring have been promoted by many scholars and researchers as an effective strategy to prepare new school administrators and to carry out ongoing professional development and support (Barnett & O’Mahony, 2008). The topic of coaching and mentoring school leaders is important for several reasons: School administrators are important to school success and student learning, the changing and multifaceted role of the modern school administrator, and the increasing utilization of coaching and mentoring as a training and professional development strategy.
School administrators, from superintendents to principals, play a crucial role in the success or failure of the schools, teachers, and students for which they are responsible. Fullan (2001), concluded that school administrators were crucial to the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of the supported vision for the school. The important role that school administrators play in the success of the educational environment was recently highlighted by a group of seminal researchers and scholars:
In developing a starting point for this six-year study, we claimed, based on a preliminary review of research, that leadership is second only to classroom instruction as an influence on student learning, after six additional years of research, we are even more confident about this claim. To date we have not found a single case of a school improving its student achievement record in the absence of talented leadership. (Seashore Louis, Leithwood, Wahlstrom, & Anderson, 2010, p. 9)
While the role of the school administrator remains critical to the success of the school of today, the role of administrators has changed considerably over time. Today, the modern administrator faces an ever-changing and multifaceted job description. School administrators are required to facilitate and engage in: ensuring effective professional learning communities (Marzano, Walters, & McNulty, 2005), personnel management (Portin, 2004), student discipline (Portin, 2004), government and public relations (Hess & Kelly, 2007), finance and budgetary planning (Portin, 2004), instructional leadership (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004), cultural and strategic planning (Cruzeiro & Morgan, 2006), and myriad other functions. School administrators are expected to be competent in all of the above areas while simultaneously being responsible for the performance of the school as it relates to the increasing demands placed on it by federal, state, and local accountability (Copland, 2001). Cruzeiro and Morgan (2006), conducted a study of 255 principals and concluded that principals spent less than 12% of their time functioning in an instructional leadership role. This is in contrast to the findings of Leithwood et al. (2004) which suggested that instructional leadership is the most important responsibility of a principal.
As the roles and responsibilities of the school administrator have changed over time, so too has the preparation of individuals who seek to enter the field. Davis and Darling-Hammond (2012) reported that while many principal preparation programs claim to be effective, the evidence for this is sparse; especially when considering the principal’s impact on such important aspects as student achievement and instructional practices of teachers. Current research regarding administrator preparation programs suggest that coaching and mentoring can be part of an effective preparation program. Davis, Darling-Hammond, Meyerson, and LaPointe (2005) identified seven features of effective leadership preparation programs. Among these, the researchers identified field-based internships, situational collaboration and teamwork, and rigorous recruitment of candidates as features that could be aligned to include a coaching and mentoring component.
In addition to initial preparation programs, school administrators are in need of ongoing professional development in order to keep pace with changes in the field and the internal and external pressures of the position. Leadership coaching, as a form of job-embedded professional development for school administrators, has recently been adapted from the corporate world to the field of educational administration (Elliott, 2011). The utilization of leadership coaching is becoming part of many professional development activities for principals (Lubinsky, 2002). A wide range of research studies have described the use of both coaching and mentoring as professional development strategies for school administrators (Albury & Hackman, 2006; Crawford & Early, 2012; Brickman, Goldring, De Andrade, Breda, & Goff, 2012; Dunbar & Kinnersley, 2011; Gettys, Martin, & Bigby, 2010; Gray & Lewis, 2013; James-Ward, 2011; Robinson, Horan, & Nanavati, 2009). This emerging practice of providing coaching and mentoring support for administrators mirrors the use of instructional coaches for teachers to improve classroom teaching strategies and ultimately student performance (Knight, 2011).
Definition of Key Terms
Coaching. Coaching is a product of experienced, individualized leadership development. The process allows leaders to build capacity and to achieve short and long-term organizational goals. Coaching sessions are typically one-on-one, are data driven, and based on a partnership approach (Ennis et al., 2003; Stern, 2004;).
Mentoring. Mentoring is the process of receiving counsel from a person who serves the role of either a personal counselor or teacher. Mentoring occurs when someone who listens, asks pertinent questions, and helps a person figure out the correct path to take (McLaughlin, 2010).
Literature Search Strategies
The research for this literature review was conducted using several different methods: An EBSCO search of peer-reviewed scholarly articles, a Proquest search of dissertations and theses, and a general internet search using a search engine.
Extent and Nature of the Literature
There is lack of depth of research, both older and more recent, regarding the topic of administrator coaching and administrator mentoring. However, there are a plethora of studies that have been conducted regarding executive coaching in the corporate and business environment.
Overview
This literature review will begin with a discussion of the connection between the effective elements for administrator coaching and mentoring, and the Theory of Transformational Leadership. Once those connections have been discussed and established, the review will consider the attributes of a successful Coaching/Mentoring program for administrators. These attributes of effective programs include the following elements: Personalization, identification of goals and timelines, trained coaches, adequate time, and relevant feedback. In addition to the attributes of successful programs, the potential outcomes of administrator Coaching/Mentoring will also be considered. These potential outcomes are as follows: Increased levels of confidence as an instructional leader, increased communication, and increased professional efficacy. Finally, there will be a review of the literature related to the considerations that should be made in order to create an effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring program. These considerations include: Cost of the program, job embedded versus independent, the level of support by the district or state, and the intended relationship between the coach and the coachee.
Theoretical Considerations
Bass (1991) in his seminal work on the development of the theory of transformational leadership described transformational leadership as superior leadership performance. Bass (1991) described transformational leaders as those leaders who were able to develop and raise the interests of their employees, increase awareness of cooperation in the purpose and mission of the organization, and cause their employees to become altruistic regarding the needs of the group.
Podsakoff, MacKenzie, and Bommer (1996), extended Bass’ work and proposed six dimensions of transformational leadership: Formulating a positive view of the future, providing a role model of effective behavior, fostering group goals, articulating high performance expectations, offering individualized support, and utilizing intellectual stimulation to generate innovative solutions to old and complex problems. Smith (2015), reported that leadership coaching effectively supported key aspects of transformational leadership behavior. Coaching and mentoring are both compatible with this leadership framework because they both deal with the goals and interests of the employees, provide role models, and give employees individualized support. According to Augustine-Shaw (2015), transformational vision is a necessary skill for principals, and that mentors can assist in maximizing administrators’ roles as instructional leaders. Mentors can play a critical role in helping principals achieve the transformational leadership aspects of goal-setting and generating innovative solutions (Augustine-Shaw, 2015).
Review of the Literature
Attributes of a Successful Coaching/Mentoring Program for Administrators
While the research literature on the topic of what constitutes a successful Coaching/Mentoring program for administrators is scant, there are a several elements of success that were prominently discussed. Among those common themes, the research conducted on the topic of administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs highlighted the following attributes: A personalized approach, development of specific goals and timelines, trained coaches, and relevant feedback (Elliott, 2011; Gettys, Martin, & Bigby, 2010; Turesky & Gallagher, 2011)
. Personalized. Among the most prominently highlighted attribute in the literature regarding administrator Coaching/Mentoring was the need for personalization. Turesky and Gallagher (2011) reported that a personalized approach is critical to the success of leadership coaches. The researchers described how leadership coaches would benefit from the application of Kolb’s experiential learning theory to their coaching process. The researchers synthesized the research on Kolb’s theory and adapted it to leadership coaching (Kolb, 1984). They produced a series of highly personalized recommendations for coaches to use with their clients during coaching interactions which were based on the four types of learners described by Kolb (1984).
Research suggests that the heightened expectations of school leaders and the complexity of the task of school leadership, necessitates the use of personalized, job embedded, professional development (Crawford & Earley, 2011). Dunbar and Kinnersley (2011), confirmed the importance of personalization, especially when Coaching/Mentoring female administrators. The researchers concluded that female administrators responded better to Coaching/Mentoring than their male counterparts when the selection of the coaches was done informally and took into account the gender and race of the coachee.
Greer, Anast-May, and Gurley (2014) conducted a qualitative study related to the perceived value of principal internship activities. The researchers found a direct correlation between the amount of personalization and the level of perceived effectiveness of the internship experience. In order to personalize the approach coaches take with their clients, Wasylyshyn, Shorey, and Chaffin (2012), suggested personalized strategies which would be helpful to coaches as they worked with clients who exhibited specific leadership behaviors.
Specific goals and timelines. In addition to a personalized approach, the literature also reveals that effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs incorporate the elements of specific goals and timelines into their design. Elliott (2011) conducted a review of the literature on the subject of coaching for leadership development. In this study, the researcher highlighted the need for Coaching/Mentoring programs to design interventions based on specific goals and the psychological needs of the coachee. Also, Gatling and Harrah (2014) conducted a quantitative study of 96 business coaches who worked to increase the personal and business effectiveness of their clients. In this study, one of the attributes of success they measured was the coaches’ perceived ability to meet the specific personal and professional goals of their clients. In addition, Robinson, Horan, and Nanavati (2009) concluded that a program that included regular meeting times for participants and discussion of mutually defined goals was effective. Also, Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) measured the coaches’ ability to meet with clients on a regular basis to discuss their personal and professional goals.
Trained coaches. While the role of effective and personalized training as a part of transformational leadership theory is implicit, effective training is also a primary consideration for leaders (Bass, 1991). Gettys, Martin, and Bigby (2010), demonstrated the importance of having trained coaches for an effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring program. They conducted a qualitative study to examine the thoughts and experiences of novice principals related their participation in either district or state-created mentoring programs. In this instance, the researchers stressed that successful mentoring programs depended on mentor training. In addition, Alsbury and Hackman (2006) conducted a mixed methods study of a mentoring program for novice administrators sponsored by the state of Iowa. In the Iowa study, the researchers discussed the importance of providing trained mentors and how they were carefully paired with a mentee. James-Ward (2011), also concluded that trained coaches were an important aspect of an effective principal coaching and mentoring program.
Relevant feedback. The importance of coaches / mentors providing relevant feedback to their clients was highlighted by a number of studies. Bickman, Goldring, De Andrade, Breda, and Goff (2012) conducted an experimental study to determine the effectiveness of feedback and coaching on improving the instructional leadership abilities of principals. This research indicated that both feedback and coaching had improved the performance of executives. The authors concluded that feedback to principals about their teachers’ opinions related to their instructional leadership led to improvement. Furthermore, the combination of feedback plus coaching led to an enhanced effect; but only when the principal was convinced of the validity of the teachers’ feedback. Gettys, Martin, and Bigby (2010), identified six strategies for effective mentoring programs. Among these six identified strategies, they highlighted the importance of developing techniques for providing relevant and timely feedback to the mentee.
Potential Outcomes of an Effective Coaching/Mentoring Program for Administrators
Aside from the attributes of an effective coaching /mentoring program for administrators, there is also evidence in the literature to support several potential outcomes that are associated with an effective program. Several important outcomes of effective Coaching/Mentoring programs discussed in the literature are as follows: Increased levels of confidence as an instructional leader, increased communication, and increased professional efficacy (Turesky & Gallagher, 2011; Elliott, 2011; Gettys, Martin, & Bigby, 2010)
Increased levels of confidence as an instructional leader. Coaching and mentoring programs for administrators have demonstrated that they are able to increase the confidence of principals in relation to their role as an instructional leader. To illustrate this, Alsbury and Hackman (2006) reported higher levels of confidence as instructional leaders in a study of principals who had recently participated in a coaching program. Furthermore, Brickman, Goldring, De Andrade, Breda, and Goff (2012) examined the instructional leadership abilities of 76 principals in a large urban school district. They concluded that under certain circumstances, administrator coaching could increase the perceived confidence in instructional leadership abilities among principals.
Increased communication. Another important outcome of effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs is increased communication. Effective communication has been shown to play an important role for transformational leaders (Bass, 1991). Programs that include Coaching/Mentoring for administrators have demonstrated that they increase the level and quality of communication across a wide spectrum of interactions. In a recent important large study of a district-wide coaching project, James-Ward (2011) presented a case study that described the creation of an infrastructure for an administrative coaching model. The infrastructure for the program involved monthly meetings for the following groups: Coaches and district leaders, all the coaches, and coaches and the principals. In this case, the infrastructure of the coaching project itself greatly increased the frequency and quality of communication both within the district and between the district and its building principals. Alsbury and Hackman (2006) have also identified increased communication as a benefit of mentoring for administrators. Additionally, Gettys, Martin, and Bigby (2010), identified effective and increased communication as one of several important aspects of effective mentoring programs.
Increased professional efficacy. In addition to increased confidence as instructional leaders and increased communication, the literature also revealed that effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs increased the professional efficacy of participants. Transformational leaders require high levels of professional efficacy and promote its development in those they lead (Bass, 1991). Alsbury and Hackman (2006), reported that administrators who had gone through a mentoring program had a greater amount of professional efficacy than those who had not. Crawford and Earley (2011) used data from a school leadership development program in England to examine the impact of personalized coaching. They concluded that the coaching interactions gave both the coach and the coachee higher levels of professional efficacy. Coaches felt like they were doing the important work of helping the next generation of leaders, and the coachees felt that they had become stronger leaders as a result of the program. Robinson, Horan, and Nanavati (2009), described a case study for a principal mentoring program put in place by the public schools in Ontario, Canada. The program paired new school administrators with more experienced or retired school administrators. The participants reported feeling a greater level of professional efficacy regarding their overall leadership of the school.
Considerations for effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs
In addition to the attributes and potential outcomes of an effective Coaching/Mentoring program for administrators, there are several considerations for the implementation and of such programs discussed in the literature. These considerations are as follows: The cost of the program, whether the program was job-embedded professional development or informal and independent, the level of support given to the program, and the use of partnership principals for coaching (Crawford & Early, 2011; Daresh, 2004; Knight, 2011).
Cost. Cost is frequently cited as a reason for the lack of widespread adoption of administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs among states and local school districts (Daresh, 2004). Despite this frequent assertion, Lochmiller (2014), reported that there is actually a lack of research concerning the cost of administrator coaching programs. Lochmiller (2014) also conducted a study that estimated the cost to provide coaching to every new principal in the state of Washington. The author’s calculations revealed that the cost would amount to a range of $12 per pupil to $4 per pupil. The author stated that while this is important information for policy makers, its effectiveness is limited by the fact that there is limited research on what constitutes an effective coaching program for administrators.
Job-embedded professional development or informal and independent. Another consideration for the development of effective Coaching/Mentoring programs for administrators is whether or not the program is job-embedded or informal and independent. Crawford and Early (2011), found that effective principal mentoring programs took advantage of personalized, job embedded professional development. Almost all of the studies in the review of the literature included some component of job-embedded professional development. These often took the form of coaches or mentors working with clients on personalized goals drawn from specific workplace situations (Alsbury & Hackman, 2006; Bickman, Goldring, De Andrade, Breda, & Goff, 2012; Gatling& Harrah, 2014; Geer, G. C., Anast-May, L., & Gurley, D. K., 2014; Gettys, S. G., Martin, B. N., & Bigby, L., 2010; James-Ward, C., 2011; Robinson, J., Horan, L., & Nanavati, M., 2009). There is also research suggesting that informal and independent Coaching/Mentoring may be appropriate in some instances. Dunbar and Kinnersley (2011), found evidence to this effect. The researchers conducted a qualitative study that examined the impact of mentoring on the perceived leadership success of female higher education administrators. They concluded that informal mentoring relationships for women were more effective than formal relationships.
Level of Support by the District or State. A review of the literature on this topic highlights the level of local and/or state support as another consideration in the development of administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs. Daresh (2004) reported that concerns about the potentially high cost and the perception of privileging administrators by providing them with individual coaches or mentors, often diminishes policymakers’ desire to support such programs. Several researchers reported that high levels of support were needed from the organizing agency whether it be the state or the local school district (Gettys, Martin, & Bigby, 2010; Alsbury & Hackman, 2006; Lochmiller, 2014; James-Ward, 2011).
Use of the Partnership Approach to Coaching. Transformational leadership theory as refined by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, and Bommer (1996) supports the use of partnership strategies such as those promoted by Knight (2011), for instructional coaches for teachers. These partnership strategies include: Equality, choice, voice, reflection, dialogue, praxis, and reciprocity. Knight (2011), reports that the partnership approach was developed from the theoretical perspective of transformational leadership and other similar theories. Knight (2011) emphasized the importance of a partnership approach for coaches. His research into instructional coaching for teachers has placed partnership and collaboration above emotional intelligence and communication in the toolbox of necessary skills for coaches.
Research for this literature review supports the consideration of the partnership approach as a design element for effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs. Additionally, Dunbar and Kinnersley (2011) reported that equality was an important consideration when considering the paring of coaches and coachees. As previously discussed, a number of studies have found that praxis, which is the application or use of job-embedded professional development, is highlighted in the literature (Knight, 2011). Dialogue, as discussed earlier, is directly related to the finding in the literature that relevant feedback is an important attribute of effective administrator Coaching/Mentoring programs.
Summary
The importance of school administrators in the operation of the school and on student achievement is evident in the literature (Seashore Louis, Leithwood, Wahlstrom, & Anderson, 2010). This high level of importance coupled with the changing nature and increasing complexity of the job of school administrators, necessitates contemporary forms of professional development (Marzano, Walters, & McNulty, 2005; Portin, 2004); Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004; Cruzeiro & Morgan, 2006; Copland, 2001). Increasingly, coaching and mentoring is a professional development strategy that has been used successfully in the business world and is now widely used in the field of education (Lubinsky, 2002).
Several attributes of successful Coaching/Mentoring programs have emerged from the literature: A personalized approach, development of specific goals and timelines, trained coaches, and relevant feedback. Additionally, several potential impacts of successful Coaching/Mentoring programs were also highlighted in the research. Among those common themes were: Increased levels of confidence as an instructional leader, increased communication, and increased professional efficacy.
Finally, the review of the literature revealed that there are some factors that should be considered when designing and implementing an administrator Coaching/Mentoring program. These considerations should include: The cost of the program, whether the program was job-embedded professional development or informal and independent, the level of support given to the program, and the use of partnership principals for coaching.
Discussion
Conclusions. While the available research on the topic of administrator Coaching/Mentoring is scant, a review of the available literature revealed that transformational leadership theory (Augustine-Shaw, 2015; Bass, 1991; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996) is a proper lens through which to view the application of Coaching/Mentoring programs as part of educational leadership induction and professional development programs. Additionally, the literature supports coaching and mentoring of administrators as a definite benefit for the administrator, and by implication, the school and its students. However, a settled body of research does not exist regarding the elements that are necessary for an effective administrator coaching or mentoring program.
Implications. The practice of coaching and mentoring administrators should become more widespread so that more administrators, schools, and students can take advantage of the benefits of a well-trained and capable administrator.
Suggestions for Future Research. More research needs to be done in this area in order to determine what constitutes best practice for coaching and mentoring administrators (Elliott, 2011; James-Ward, 2011). Research also needs to be done regarding the effect that administrator coaching has on teachers, students, and the school as a whole (Crawford & Earley, 2011; James-Ward, 2011).
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